Description

The Silk Roads extended over 6500 km and connected East, South, and Western Asia with the Mediterranean and European world and served as historical network of interlinking trade routes, intercultural dialogue, exchange of traditions, sciences, art, religions, languages and human values.

The “Silk Roads: Zarafshan-Karakum Corridor” is located along the Zarafshan river, its wider hydrological basin and the Karakum desert. It was identified in the Silk Roads ICOMOS Thematic Study as the 4th and 5th corridors out of 54. It is linked to the Tien-Shan corridor in the North, the Fergana Valley corridor in the East, the Amudarya corridor in the South and via the Southern Aral Sea to the Caspian corridor in the West, as well as from Merv to the Khorasan corridor (once called Great Khorasan Road in early Islamic period.

The corridor starts from Khisorak in Sogd province in the Republic of Tajikistan and ends in Kushmeihan in Mary province in Turkmenistan. The length of the corridor is about 866 km and it lies in the three Central Asian countries Tajikistan, Uzbekistan, and Turkmenistan. It crosses geographical zones such as the highland zone, piedmont zone, plains zone, artificial irrigation zone, oases zone, wormwood-steppe zone and desert zone.

The corridor consists of 31 component parts: Khisorak, Castle on Mount Mugh, Kum settlement, Gardani-Khisor, Tali-Khamtuda, Mukhammad Bashoro Mausoleum, Toksankoriz, Sanjarshakh, Ancient Town of Penjikent (Tajikistan); Jartepa II Temple, Suleimantepa, Kafirkala settlement, Dabusiya settlement, Qosim Shaikh Complex, Mir-Sayid Bakhrom Mausoleum, Rabati Malik Caravanserai and Sardoba, Deggaron Mosque, Chasma-I Ayub Khazira, Vardanze settlement, Vobkent Minaret, Bahouddin Naqshband Architectural Complex, Chor Bakr Necropolis, Varakhsha settlement, Paikend settlement (Uzbekistan) and Amul settlement, Mansaf Caravanserai, Konegala Caravanserai, Tahmalaj, Akja Gala Caravanserai, Gyzylja Gala Caravanserai and Kushmeihan (Turkmenistan). In addition, there are three World Heritage properties, the Samarkand-Crossroad of Cultures, the Historic Centre of Bukhara and Ancient Merv State Historical and Cultural Park, situated along the corridor. Samarkand and Bukhara have been the major cities in this region from the 6th century BC and Merv from the 3rd century BC onwards. All three of them possess significant archaeological remains from pre-Islamic period as well as outstanding architectural monuments of the Muslim time. In addition, the world heritage property Historic Centre of Shakhrisyabz, medieval Kesh, is located somewhat to the south, but it is also profoundly related to the corridor. Although there are not included as component parts of this World Heritage nomination their attributes and relevance are highlighted throughout the nomination dossier.

From the 2nd century BC to the end of the 16th century the Corridor had three important periods of prosperity. First, during the blossom of the Parthian (2nd century BC) and pre-Islamic Sogdian cultures, from the 5th to 8th century, under Hepthalite, Turk, Chinese and Arab rule, when the role of Central Asian merchants increased significantly, especially of the Sogdians, who were the main intermediaries in international silk trade called the “Phoenicians of the Silk Road” by 20th century scholars, but also developed a unique developed culture in their motherland in and near Zarafshan valley. Second, during the 10th century, the periods of the Samanids and Seljuks and later pre-Mongol dynasties, when cities and urban culture in Maverannahr (Transoxiana) actively developed and trade activities within Muslim ecumene and outside, are well documented by archaeological findings and written sources. Lastly, in the 14th and 15th centuries, the time of the Timurids, when science, culture, urban planning and economics significantly developed.

Along the “Silk Roads: Zarafshan-Karakum Corridor” urban centers, trade, architectural elements, dynamic development, infrastructure and intangible associations, served in further distribution and interaction of different religions and spiritual traditions. These include Zoroastrianism, Manichaeism, Buddhism, Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. Maverannahr was origin or second home to various Sufi shaikhs who, like Bahauddin Naqshband, influenced deeply cultures of Middle East, the Indian Subcontinent and Northern Eurasia, the religious cult of Sufism (Islamic mysticism) developed widely. The Jartepa II Temple represents the role of extramural pan-Sogdian Zoroastrian sanctuaries along the Zarafshan-Karakum Corridor, whereas Suleimantepa monastery reflects the spread of Eastern Syriac Christianity in the Central Asia along the Silk Roads.

Starting from the 5th to 8th century, to the 3rd century BCE to the 11th century. The sites of Kafirkala, Varakhsha, Vardanze, Sanjar-shah, Khisorak demonstrate the highly developed Sogdian palatial architecture. The temple of Jartepa and fortress of Khamtuda are witnesses to the emergence of Sogdian cultural complex, and the deep cultural strata of the cities such as Paikend, Vardanze, Dabusiya, Amul, Kushmeihan show the continuity of urban lifestyle through two millennia.

The sites of ancient water management system, as Raboti Malik Caravanserai and Sardoba and Toksankoriz, are unique and outstanding example of human interaction with the environment in terms of advances in infrastructure and technology. The fortresses and settlements in the highland part of Zarafshan valley (Kum, Gardani Khisor, Mugh) and especially the significant town of Khisorak at the elevation of 2250 m above the sea level, show the efforts made my ancient people to make hostile environment available to civilized human lifestyle. The development and prosperity of the sites on the outskirts of Merv oasis was totally dependent on ancient and medieval sophisticated water supply technologies.

Architectural elements of Muslim religious monuments of both pre-Mongol – Chashma-i Ayyub, Deggaron mosque, Mir-Sayyid Bakhrom, Vobkent Minaret - and post Mongol - Muhammad Bashoro, Qosim Shaikh, Bahouddin Naqshband, Chor Bakr - periods show that superb architectural monuments were limited not to capital cities but were found in the rural area and even remote places. They demonstrated new stages in architecture development and later influenced other monuments and integrated widely in Islamic architecture. The site of Suleimantepa is a proof for tolerance towards Christians in the early Muslim Maverannahr. The sites of infrastructure, including fortifications as Castle on Mount Mugh, Tali Khamtuda as well as the remains of caravanserais, Raboti Malik Caravanserai and Sardoba, Mansaf and Konegala along the Zarafshan-Karakum corridor demonstrate the evidence of the comprehensive system that conditioned the functioning of the Silk Roads over a span of time.

Name(s) of the component part(s)

TM-01 Amul settlement N 39° 1' 8,400", E 63° 35' 28,619"

TM-02 Mansaf Caravanserai N 38° 16' 8,580", E 62° 47' 52,780"

TM-03 Konegala Caravanserai N 38° 14' 58,610", E 62° 46' 13,210"

TM-04 Tahmalaj N 38° 7' 50,600", E 62° 38' 48,000"

TM-05 Akja Gala Caravanserai N 38° 5' 19,200", E 62° 37' 7,400"

TM-06 Gyzylja Gala Caravanserai (Rabad al-Hadid) N 38° 2' 39,500", E 62° 35' 46,000"

TM-07 Kushmeihan (Dinli Kishman) N 37° 55' 26,090", E 62° 12' 31,320"

Description of the component part(s)

TM-01 Amul settlement
Amul is one of the main urban centres of Khorasan on the Silk Roads located within a relatively narrow strip of agricultural land along the left bank of Amu Darya. It was the administrative and cultural center of middle Amu Darya region. Situated at a convenient crossing place of the Amu Darya river, suitable for passage on boats or on ice, it controlled the vital river crossing. This was strategically the most effective route: to the east to Bukhara and Poykent, along the Zarafshan river; and to the east, the shortest crossing of the Karakum Desert to the Murghab delta and Merv. The survey excavations there document its continuous occupation since first centuries CE till 19th century.

TM-02 Mansaf Caravanserai
Mansaf Caravanserai represents a typical kosh (stop), a rabad of the 9th – early 10th centuries and 11th -12th centuries on Amul-Merv section of the Silk Roads. The Mansaf Caravanserai reflects the efforts of the nations and regimes along the Zarafshan-Karakum corridor to create and maintain sophisticated infrastructure system that supported the trade and travelling along the Silk Roads over the centuries.

TM-03 Konegala Caravanserai
The Konegala caravanserai represents an outstanding example of a caravanserai on Amul-Merv section of the Silk Roads of the 10th – early 13th centuries. Its archaeological remains reflect the outstanding skills in making comfortable shelter in the most severe desert environment of Karakum.

TM-04 Tahmalaj
The Tahmalaj archaeological site is representing a köshk, a type of supporting infrastructure point characteristic for Amul-Merv section of the Silk Roads. Its archaeological remains reflect the outstanding skills in making comfortable shelter in the most severe desert environment of Karakum.

TM-05 Akja Gala Caravanserai
The Akja Gala Caravanserai represents an outstanding example of a caravanserai on Amul-Merv section of the Silk Roads of the 9th – 12th centuries. Its archaeological remains reflect the outstanding skills in making comfortable shelter in the most severe desert environment of Karakum.

TM-06 Gyzylja Gala Caravanserai (Rabad al-Hadid)
The Gyzylja Gala Caravanserai represents an outstanding complex of caravanserais on Amul-Merv section of the Silk Roads of the 8th – 12th centuries. Its archaeological remains reflect the outstanding skills in making comfortable shelter in the most severe desert environment of Karakum.

TM-07 Kushmeihan (Dinli Kishman)
Kushmeihan was a major town of Merv oasis, with a complex history of development. It was the stepping off point for the Karakum Desert crossing to Amul, a major market town and a strategic center along the Silk Roads.

Justification of Outstanding Universal Value

Criterion (ii): The “Silk Roads: Zarafshan-Karakum Corridor” is an exceptional integral system of interchange of goods, human values and influences among the people of East and West of the Silk Roads between the 2nd BC and 16th centuries. The cultural heritage of the people of Central Asia reflect high achievements of urban planning, architecture, monumental arts, science, technology and decorative arts as a result of active cooperation and dialogue along the Silk Roads.

Criterion (iii): The “Silk Roads: Zarafshan-Karakum Corridor” is an exceptional testimony of cultural traditions, with comprehensive exchange between the 2nd BC and 16th centuries. Unique urban structure, architecture, monumental art and spiritual values appeared in the process of mutual exchange reflecting the achievements in four historic periods: Sogdian, Samanid-Karakhanid, Seljuk and Temurid-Shaybanid, when the route was flourishing.

Criterion (iv): The “Silk Roads: Zarafshan-Karakum Corridor” is a unique example of urban planning, architectural art and technological process counteracting the harsh living conditions in the dry-steppe, rocky highland and arid desert zones. The ancient urban planning structures influenced the development of urban planning ideas and the formation of medieval urban structures in Central Asia.

Criterion (v): The “Silk Roads: Zarafshan-Karakum Corridor” reflects the unique example of human interaction with the natural environment of the highland, piedmont, dry-steppe, oases and fertile valleys, and arid-desert zones.

Criterion (vi): The “Silk Roads: Zarafshan-Karakum Corridor” has played a relevant role in the spread of various faiths and religious beliefs. Coexistence of different religious communities, such as Zoroastrian, Manichaean, Buddhist, Jewish, Christian, and Islamic, as well as their cult objects, can be found all along the Corridor. This is an example of the interaction, of cultural dialogue and tolerance of society, which is still inherent in modern Central Asia. The remnants of ancient beliefs and practices, clearly indicating the continuity of the living cultural traditions of the region, can be encountered in the customs and traditions of modern people - music culture, folk festivals, religious and ritual practices.

Statements of authenticity and/or integrity

The authenticity of the "Silk Roads: Zarafshan-Karakum Corridor" fully reflects its individual attributes in relationship to the Outstanding Universal Value and the contribution of these sites into the cultural traditions, beliefs, ideas, infrastructure and socio-economic success of the Silk Roads. All nominated component parts are well-documented and connected with the period of prosperity of the Silk Roads from the 2nd century B.C. to the late 16th century A.D. mainly during its four flourishing periods, namely, the 5th-6th centuries during the Turkic Khaganate; the 10th century during the Samanids period, the 11th-12th centuries during the Seljuk period and the 14th-15th centuries during the Timurid period. Architectural complexes have exceptional attributes such as: initial space-planning solution and individual ornamental and artistic elements. Archaeological sites preserve their original layout as well as integral parts. The monuments preserve partially the original brick materials and construction techniques. Earthen constructions materials, mud bricks and pakhsa, maintained the traditional production technique and massively used today. The function and use still remains in the same manner, in particular, for transportation, trade, passage between regions, religious use and pilgrimage. The route has been transformed into the modern traffic road and retained the use for transportation. The geographic outlet of the corridor is authentic and spread alone the diversity of environmental zones such piedmont, plain, artificial irrigation, oases and wormwood-steppe zones following the stream of the Zarafshan River. With the time development the corridor has been dynamically changed in terms of city growth, land-use and infrastructure at the same time it retained its original values.

The integrity of the "Silk Roads: Zarafshan-Karakum Corridor" is related to the presence of all the attributes and dynamic functions, including four different geographical zones, namely, piedmont, plain, artificial irrigation, oases and wormwood-steppe zones and well retained at mausoleums, sardobas, settlements, caravanserais, minarets, mosques, religious complexes and archaeological sites. Sites retained component structures partially, the location and architectural forms remained unchanged and preserved and main attributes retained. Architectural planning, decoration elements, remaining of walls, functional features reflect the values representing the integrity of the component parts. The remnants of ruins are sufficient to fully understand the functional features and processes reflecting the values of the component parts. Boundaries and buffer zones of the component parts are clear and defined as well as under the state protection. Although development pressure affects some component parts in terms of urbanization, tourism development and new technologies, it is controlled by relevant governmental organizations in charge of preservation and utilization of cultural heritage in Tajikistan, Uzbekistan and Turkmenistan. Moreover, state laws on the protection of cultural heritage are well organized and integrated in all development processes in local, regional and national levels, ensuring the intactness of the component parts, in particular, and the overall corridor, in general.

Justification of the selection of the component part(s) in relation to the future nomination as a whole

The internal comparative analysis in Turkmenistan included 16 archaeological sites in Lebap and Mary provinces Samarkand selected in accordance with the chronological and geographical framework of the Zarafshan-Karakum corridor of the Silk Roads. The comparative analysis considered the ability of the sites to represents key features of the Silk Roads heritage including (1) urbanization, trade, wealth, culture, ethnicities and communities; (2) control of empires, power, warfare; (3) transport, infrastructure of travel; (4) outcomes and impacts; (5) religious interchange; (6) production and (7) infrastructural development. The comparative analysis also considered other factors to ensure the credible representation of the archaeological sites in the Turkmenistan section of the Zarafshan-Karakum corridor of the Silk Roads. Therefore, such factors included chorological and geographical context of the archaeological sites analyzed. The final selection of the sites is constituted by 5 infrastructure site (Mansaf Caravanserai, Konegala Caravanserai, Akja Gala Caravanserai and Gyzylja Gala Caravanserai and Tahmalaj) and 2 central towns (Amul and Kushmeihan). The final selection includes the most representative, in terms of the OUV values, sites with a high level of integrity and authenticity and enhanced by the Ancient Merv State Historical and Cultural Park World Heritage sites located along the Silk Roads: Zarafshan-Karakum Corridor.

Comparison with other similar properties

As of 2020, 11 cultural routes have been inscribed to the World Heritage List, including the Silk Roads: Initial Section of the Silk Roads, the Routes Network of Tian-shan Corridor (2014), which is the first inscribed corridor of the Silk Roads Transnational Serial World Heritage nomination as well as the Routes of Santiago de Compostela: Camino Francés and Routes of Northern Spain (1993); Routes of Santiago de Compostela in France (1998); Land of Frankincense (2000); Quebrada de Humahuaca (2003); Sacred Sites and Pilgrimage Routes in the Kii Mountain Range (2004); Incense Route-Desert Cities in the Negev (2005); Mount Wutai (2009); Camino Real de Tierra Adentro (2010); Birthplace of Jesus: Church of the Nativity and the Pilgrimage Route, Bethlehem (2012) and Qhapaq Ñan, Andean Road System (2014).

The comparative analysis with the existing World Heritage cultural routes was based on the following values: influences (criterion ii); testimony (criterion iii); typology (criterion iv); land-use (criterion v) and associations (criterion vi).

The value of interchange is characteristic for the majority of the World Heritage cultural routes. At the same time, the content of interchange (including human values, actors as well as geocultural region and chronological framework) differs significantly from site to site. For instance, the Routes of Santiago de Compostela (in Spain and France) reflect the exchange of cultural and religious values between European pilgrims and the communities of the Iberian Peninsula in the Middle Ages. The Quebrada de Humahuaca has shaped the interaction between the peoples of highlands and lowlands of the Andes from Prehistory until the present day. The Sacred Sites and Pilgrimage Routes in the Kii Mountain Range bear the evidence of the interchange of several religious cultures of Japan from the 9th century to the present day, whereas the Mount Wutai represents the interchange of ideas on developments of Buddhist architecture from the 1st AD until early 20th century. The value of interchange of cultural and religious ideas also resides in the Camino Real de Tierra Adentro that functioned as a communication channel and colonial silver mining industry route in Mesoamerica from mid 16th to 19th centuries.

The diversity and large geographical extent of interchange are characteristic both to the Qhapaq Ñan and the Silk Roads: Zarafshan-Karakum Corridor. However, the content of exchange as well as the physical features of Qhapaq Ñan, connecting Andean communities from 15th century until the present day, differs significantly: its 137 component areas and 308 associated sites represent communication, trade and defense network of roads that conditioned movement of labor and exchange of social, political and cultural values of the Inca Empire. Therefore, the Silk Roads: Zarafshan-Karakum Corridor belonging to different geocultural and chronological framework represents a unique complex interchange of both human values and influences, encompassing trade, social and economic values, architecture and urban planning, culture and arts, science and technology, between the peoples of East and the West from the 2nd BC to 16th century AD.

As regards the World Heritage cultural routes, inscribed to the World Heritage List under the criterion (iii), both the Land of Frankincense and the Incense Route – Desert Cities in the Negev are the exceptional testimonies of frankincense trade in the Antiquity. The Sacred Sites and Pilgrimage Routes in the Kii Mountain Range and the Mount Wutai bear exceptional testimony to religious traditions (Japanese religious culture and pilgrimage to mountains, respectively); the Qhapaq Ñan is a unique testimony of the Inca civilization. In this light, the outstanding heritage of the Silk Roads: Zarafshan-Karakum Corridor serves as an exceptional testimony to several cultural traditions that go beyond trade and religion, encompassing complex cultural phenomena of Sogdian, Samanid-Karakhanid, Seljuk and Timurid-Shaybanid civilizations.

The cultural routes inscribed to the World Heritage List are outstanding and the most preserved examples of:

• pilgrimage routes (Christian pilgrimage routes in both cases of the Routes of Santiago de Compostela in Spain and France)
• settlements (Medieval fortified settlements of Southern Arabia in the case of the Land of Frankincense; Pre-Hispanic settlements and Pre-Incan Settlements in the case of the Quebrada de Humahuaca)
• networks of routes / infrastructure (the South Andean system of communication and social, economic and cultural coordination routes in the case of Quebrada de Humahuaca; the technological ensemble of the Spanish colonial exploitation of silver in the case of the Camino Real de Tierra Adentro; the complex technological ensemble and the state infrastructure of the Inca Empire in the case of Qhapaq Ñan)
• architecture (Japanese wooden religious architecture in the case of the Sacred Sites and Pilgrimage Routes in the Kii Mountain Range; Chinese early timber architecture in the case of the Mount Wutai; the architecture of Spanish colonial exploitation of silver in the case of the Camino Real de Tierra Adentro; the Church of the Nativity as an outstanding Christian church in the case of the Birthplace of Jesus: Church of the Nativity and the Pilgrimage Route, Bethlehem)

In comparison, the Silk Roads: Zarafshan-Karakum Corridor bears the unique example of urban planning, architecture and technological ensembles evolved based on the use of water resources in medieval Central Asia.

Although, the human-nature interaction resides in the essence of the cultural routes, currently, only 3 of them are inscribed to the World Heritage List under the criterion (v): the pre-Hispanic and pre-Incan pucaras and the field system of the Quebrada de Humahuaca are the outstanding examples of the human settlement and land-use in high mountains developed in South America; the remains of the Incense Route-Desert Cities in the Negev are the evidence of the human response to harsh desert conditions and its adaptation for trade and agriculture through water collection and irrigation systems. The latter is also characteristic to the Silk Roads, both Tian-Shan and Zarafshan-Karakum corridors, presenting the example of human interaction not only with deserts, but also with piedmont, dry-steppe, oases and fertile valleys, and arid-desert zones. However, in the case of the Zarafshan-Karakum corridor, the interaction was centered around the water resources of the river of Zarafshan. Therefore, the corridor represents the role of elaborate hydraulic management and irrigation systems in the development of the Silk Roads.

The majority of the World Heritage cultural routes has a direct association with such living religious traditions as Christian pilgrimage (the Routes of Santiago de Compostela in Spain and France; Birthplace of Jesus: Church of the Nativity and the Pilgrimage Route, Bethlehem; Birthplace of Jesus: the Church of the Nativity and the Pilgrimage Route, Bethlehem) or Buddhism pilgrimage (the Sacred Sites and Pilgrimage Routes in the Kii Mountain Range and the Mount Wutai).

The Zarafshan-Karakum corridor has a direct association with several faiths and religious beliefs, Zoroastrism, Manicheanism, Buddhism, Christianity and Islam, peacefully coexisted along the Silk roads. Moreover, the Zarafshan-Karakum corridor reflects the contribution of the Silk Roads to the development of Islam and, particularly, the spread of Sufism. Similar to the Qhapaq Ñan, the intangible dimension of the heritage of the Silk Roads, goes beyond the religious associations and encompasses the richness of the living traditions and cultural dialogue in modern Central Asia reflected in music culture, festivals, ritual practices and others.

 Turkmenistan